Very few people know which words should be capitalized in a title. In fact, the majority of people adopt rules from others who don’t know either. This usually takes on one of two forms: capitalizing every word, or capitalizing words containing three or more letters.

Where blog posts and internal work communications are concerned you can usually get away with such sins, largely because those in the know tend not to point out the error of your ways. But wouldn’t you rather know the truth? Wouldn’t you rather be an ambassador of proper titling rather than a capitalization criminal? Well, today is your chance to repent for improper form, and learn which words should be capitalized in titles, once and for all!

What to Capitalize in a Title

The cool thing about learning what should and shouldn’t be capitalized is that each category contains three core rules.

Rule 1:

Always capitalize the first and last letter of a title, no matter what the word is.

Rule 2:

Always capitalize the following five word categories:

1. Nouns
2. Pronouns
3. Verbs
4. Adjectives
5. Adverbs

We don’t have the time to list every noun, pronoun, verb, adjective and adverb here, but as long as you remember this list, you can Google the word you’re struggling with to find out whether or not it falls into one of the five categories listed above.

Rule 3:

Always capitalize words of five or more letters, regardless of whether the word falls into one of the aforementioned five categories. This rule will help you avoid making errors when using conjunctions and prepositions in your titles. You see, many moons ago, writers did NOT capitalize any conjunctions or prepositions. However, today’s standard practice is to capitalize conjunctions and prepositions of five or more letters.

Here are some examples:

Prepositions (five or more letters):

Within, About, Among, Between.

Conjunctions/subordinating conjunctions (five or more letters):

While, Where, Until, Because, Although.

What Not to Capitalize in Titles

Rule 1:

1) Never capitalize prepositions and conjunctions of four or fewer letters. However, remember the above rule: words with five or more letters, regardless of whether the word is a conjunction or preposition, must be capitalized.

Here are some examples:

Examples of prepositions not to be capitalized (four or fewer letters):

at / by / down / for / from / in / into / like / near / of / off / on / onto / over / past / to / upon / with

Examples of conjunctions not to be capitalized (four or fewer letters):

and / as / but / for / if / nor / once / or / so / than / that / till / when / yet

Rule 2:

Never capitalize the particle “to”, even when used as an infinitive (meaning with a verb). For example: to See, to Read, to Write, etc.

Rule 3:

Never capitalize articles: a, an, the.

Still a Little Confused?

No worries. Below we have created two lists of common words people struggle with when capitalizing titles. Bookmark this page and refer back to the lists when you’re in doubt.

DO Capitalize in a Title

About / Above / Across / After / Against / Along / Although / Among / Around / Because / Before / Behind / Below / Beneath / Beside / Between / During / Except / Inside / Outside / Since / Through / Toward / Under / Underneath / Unless / Until / Whenever / Where / Whereas / Wherever / While / Within / Without

DON’T Capitalize in a Title

and / as / as if / as long as / at / but / buy / even if / for / from / if / if only / in / into / like / near / now that / nor / of / off / on / on top of / once / onto / or / out of / over / past / so / so that / than / that / till / to / up / upon / with / when / yet

Tricky Word Groupings

Even when armed with these core rules, people end up making silly mistakes by allowing doubt to make them second-guess their titling. In light of this, here’s a short list of tricky word groupings that often trip people up:

• as Though
• even Though
• in Front of
• in Order that
• Instead of
• Rather than

Start Practicing Today

It’s a lot to take in, we know, and so you’ll need to practice writing a few titles before things begin to click into place. Another great way to learn is to spot mistakes in other people’s work. You’ll be surprised just how many journalists, authors and bloggers (in particular) get titles in a muddle. Bear in mind, though, occasionally a writer will break the rules to suit their preference or to appropriate a concept. For example, a book entitled “Think Like a Genius” might well be adjusted to “Think Like A Genius”, for no other reason than the publishing house or author thinks it looks better on the cover.

That’s it! No more excuses. Start correcting titles today and help make the world a capitalization-friendly place.

Learning to write English can be a frustratingly slow process. Every time you think you have written a word-perfect piece, some wise guy comes along and points out a mistake that you just don’t see anything wrong with. But before you snap your pencil and throw your books out of the window, take a deep breath and consider this…

Firstly, you are probably a lot better at writing than you think. If those reading your written English understand what you mean, even though the grammar and spelling isn’t perfect, you’re half way there.

Secondly, you’d be surprised at just how many native English speakers struggle with writing, and just how many mistakes native speakers make in their written communications.

And lastly, writing skills are a combination of personal negligence, poor teaching, lack of proper feedback and few opportunities to put skills into practice. Which is why today we’re going to solve these issues by giving you 10 ways to start improving your English writing skills immediately.

1. Read as much as you can

In today’s world, an increasing number of people are reading solely from online sources. The bulk of this reading is done on blogs, which aren’t always very well written. To ensure you are digesting a wide spectrum of written English, you need to employ a diverse set of reading tools. Read newspapers, magazines, brochures, reports and any other materials you can find in niches of interest. This will give you a broader understanding of grammar, sentence structure and technical jargon across a wide range of literature. When you come across words or expressions you don’t understand, underline them and look them up once you have finished your reading session.

2. Engage in chat room and forum discussions

The key to perfecting your English skills is to learn to think in English. This skill will help you write better and faster. Chat rooms and forums force you to think in English because contributors are writing in English and usually responding quickly. This dynamic environment brings English speakers of varying proficiencies together in one place, providing the perfect platform for you to improve your writing and conversational skills.

3. Mind Your Slang

It ‘s fun to learn English slang words so that you can understand the “cool” words young people use, and of course understand colloquialisms in countries like America, the UK, and Australia. But be careful not to allow slang to creep into your written work. Words such as ‘innit’ and ‘dunno’ are not considered proper English grammar, and should not find their way into formal written communications.

4. Read This Punctuation Book

No person can become a great writer of English without exemplary punctuation skills, and no writer’s bookshelf – no matter how skilled he or she might be – is complete without a copy of Eats, Shoots & Leaves by Lynne Truss. Using examples from literature, history, neighborhood signage and other sources, the book demonstrates how commas, apostrophes and conjunctions shape the meaning of sentences. Eats, Shoots & Leaves is not your typical “learn punctuation” book, either. It’s written in a witty, almost story-like way that makes it wholly enjoyable. You can grab a copy here on Amazon.com.

5. Start a Personal Blog

I know, every man and his dog are blogging for world domination these days, but this tip isn’t suggesting you embark on a mission to become the next blogosphere superstar, this endeavour is about challenging yourself to put fingers to keyboard and have the confidence to put your English writing skills on the line for all to see. A personal blog will give you a platform to use newly discovered words and expressions, and to express your thoughts and opinions on subjects you’re interested in. Don’t worry, no one’s going to judge your grammatical flaws on a personal blog; if anything, people will be impressed by your efforts.

6. Build a personalized dictionary

Easy to do and very helpful, building a personalized dictionary will improve your English writing skills overnight. Writing down irregular verbs, idiomatic expressions, technical jargon and any new words you come across will prove a far more effective learning aid than a printed or online dictionary you consult passively on an irregular basis. No matter how efficient the digital world, when it comes to learning, there is nothing quite like writing something down to get it to stick in your brain.

7. Find a personal tutor

There is no better way to advance your English writing skills that by having your work reviewed by a native English speaker. Perhaps you know a teacher or other professional whose job requires high level English skills. Ask this person if, once a week, they can help you correct grammar, spelling, tone and style in a piece of written work. Taking action on this point alone will greatly advance your English writing skills.

8. Stay humble

Even native English speakers struggle to write perfect English, and very few ever reach the standard required for professional journalism or award-winning book writing, but this doesn’t mean you won’t get there. What it does mean, however, is that no matter how good you become, you must remain open to constructive criticism. The learning never stops, and an integral part of the learning process is discussing your work with those more advanced than you and taking their comments on board. Don’t miss vital opportunities to advance your writing skills by being too proud to listen.

9. Buy a personal dictionary & thesaurus

Once you begin editing and rewriting your own work you should invest in a dictionary and thesaurus. It’s true that you can use an online dictionary and thesaurus to save money, but there’s nothing like having your own hard copy at home. One reason for this is that it is best to turn off the Internet when you edit your work so that distractions such as Facebook and Twitter don’t disturb your concentration. Your personal dictionary and thesaurus will also come in handy when you go to do some work in a library, or when you are staying away from home in a place where the Internet isn’t readily available.

10. Take advantage of free online resources

While it’s definitely worth investing in the aforementioned print books, and striking a balance between learning on and offline, there are a number of efficient online resources you can use to improve your English writing skills on a daily basis. Start with these three popular websites:

1. SpellCheckOnline.com – A free online spelling checker; useful for quickly checking texts when engaging in online discussions.

2. WordReference.com – A trusted online dictionary resource that converts words from English to your native language.

3. OxfordDictionaries.com – A trusted dictionary resource, but also a great place to learn to write better using puzzles and games.

Ah, the British! Our friends across the pond that love nothing more than spending their days using alternative word combinations rather than saying exactly what they mean. Oh, and drinking tea and dressing up in their best clothes for dinner each evening…Okay, perhaps I’ve been watching too much Downton Abbey.

Anyway, once again it’s time to baffle your friends and family with 22 (more) “oh so very British” idioms.

1. All mouth and no trousers

Someone who boasts about doing something but never delivers on their word is ‘all mouth and no trousers’. Alternatively, you might say he hasn’t got the balls! I will let your imagination work that one out.

2. As the actress said to the bishop

When a sexual reference is dropped into a conversation, ether accidently or deliberately, a person may follow it up with this idiom. The wording is often changed slightly to ‘as an actress said to a bishop’.

3. Champagne tastes, beer wages

This idiom describes a person who has expensive tastes but a low salary. Historically beer has been considered a cheap alcoholic drink, largely consumed by low salary workers. Champagne, on the other hand, is generally associated with the upper echelons of society.

4. That was a banana skin

The banana skin idiom describes a situation that causes embarrassment or problems. This idiom is derived from the old slippery banana skin on the floor joke, with the implication being that a personal has slipped up.

5. You’ve been in the wars!

A person who looks physically hurt or worn out has been in the wars. Should your son come back from football, all muddy with a bruised leg, you might say, “You’ve been in the wars, haven’t you”.

6. Getting it in the neck

Like getting stick (see part 1), getting it in the neck is to be criticised or scolded for your actions. A man who is late home from the pub is likely to ‘get it in the neck’ from his wife.

7. Down like a lead balloon

A joke or comment that ‘goes down like a lead balloon’ has been badly perceived, or has failed to impact the audience in the way it was intended.

8. Life isn’t all beer and skittles

Drinking beer and playing skittles is fun, right? Well it is for the British, anyway. But, unfortunately, life can’t be one big party (another idiom). Shame.

9. A Fair crack of the whip

If someone has had a fair crack of the whip, they have been given equal/fair opportunity to accomplish something

10. Belt and braces

This idiom describes a cautious person who treads carefully though life. “He’s all belt and braces that boy”.

11. Box clever

If you box clever you are doing what it takes to win, even if it means bending the rules a little.

12. Break your duck

This idiom means to do something for the first time. A similar version is used in the very British sport of Cricket; to ‘go for a duck’ means to be bowled out for a score of zero.

13. Come up smelling of roses

A person who has come up smelling of roses has emerged from a situation with their reputation in tact, even though their actions may have suggested they would be in considerable trouble.

14. Get out of your pram

A person getting out of their pram responds aggressively to another in a situation that doesn’t ultimately concern them. The recipient of the aggression is surprised, as they would be at a naughty baby climbing out of a pram.

15. Chinese whispers

Not considered entirely politically correct in the modern era, this idiom refers to gossip that is distorted or exaggerated as it is passed from one person to another.

16. Death warmed up

A person who looks like death warmed up looks very sick. This idiom is common in the winter months when people are suffering colds yet still struggling on with work and daily tasks.

17. Keen as mustard

If someone is enthusiastic about taking on a task or new challenge, they are considered to be ‘keen as mustard’.

18. Flogging a dead horse

No one wants to buy a dead horse, and to try and flog one is to do so without any hope of succeeding. This idiom is used when a person is trying to raise an issue without any subsequent interest or support.

19. Full Monty

‘The full Monty refers to something being complete; undiluted or reduced in any way.

20. Gone pear-shaped

Something that has gone pear-shaped has gone wrong, or produced unexpected and generally unwanted results.

21. Pardon my French

When British people swear in conversation, ether accidently or intentionally to highlight the seriousness of an issue, they often say, “pardon my French”.

22. As broad as it is long

When it’s impossible to decide between two options, the choice is as broad as it is long, which basically means the options are of equal size.

If you haven’t read part one you can do that here, and if you love these “oh so very British” idioms show some love by sharing this with your friends.

Toodle- pip.

…That’s an old-fashioned, informal British way of saying goodbye.

An idiom is an expression or saying that means something other than its literal translation, and the British English language has hundreds, possibly thousands to get your head around. Learning British idioms will not only improve your creative writing skills, but also increase your everyday conversational skills. Here are 21 idioms you’ll find British English people using on a regular basis.

1. Never wash your dirty linen in public

This idiom doesn’t literally refer to y-fronts, but instead to your personal life. British people have a reputation for being quite prudish and secretive when it comes to their personal relationships, and so in past times it was considered uncouth to talk about or expose one’s personal life outside the confines of your home. An example of washing your dirty linen in public would be arguing about an extra-marital affair with your husband in front of the neighbors.

2. Treading on thin ice

To tread on thin ice is to swim In deep water, which is another idiom, by the way. Both mean to put yourself in unnecessary danger, to walk a pathway likely to present you with problems or trouble in the near future.

3. To tiptoe on broken glass

Do you know someone who is extremely sensitive, someone who is likely to become angry at the slightest misplaced comment? Well, when you are around this person you must ‘tiptoe on broken glass’ to make sure you don’t say the wrong thing.

4. A waste of space

In the opinion of the accuser, a person who is a “waste of space” is taking up too much room on the earth. They are a waste of time and energy, and generally not worth bothering about. The implication here is that the space the person takes up would be better used for something else.

5. Getting on his/her high horse

A person saddling up in this way is considered to be taking a moral stand in an authoritative, arrogant and often aggressive manner. This idiom is usually reserved for someone who regularly acts this way; “Oh my, here we go. He’s getting on his high horse again.”

6. Making a mountain out of a molehill

This idiom is used for a person who makes something out of nothing. For example, a person who unnecessarily makes a small problem into a big one is making a mountain out of a molehill.

7. Putting the cat among the pigeons

Putting a cat among some pigeons is likely to cause commotion and worry for the poor birds, and therefore this idiom is used when an action causes a stir, shock, worry or anger among a group of people. “Wow, he really put the cat among the pigeons when he revealed to the team that he was leaving for a new club at the end of the season.”

8. It’s neither here nor there

Something that is ‘neither here nor there’ lacks relevance to a particular circumstance. It contributes nothing of substance to a situation or conversation.

9. Thinking outside the box

Walk into any office management meeting and you’re likely to hear this idiom at some point. It means to open the mind and go beyond the constraints of conventional thinking.

10. A drop in the ocean

A drop of water is a tiny amount when considering the full capacity of the ocean. Therefore, ‘a drop in the ocean’ is used to describe something being insignificant when considering the overall situation or circumstance.

11. Over the hill

To be over the hill is to be too old for a specific purpose. For example, one might refer to a late thirties footballer as ‘over the hill.’

12. Chewing the fat

To chew the fat with someone is to engage in conversation. This idiom can refer to both general gossip and philosophical debate.

13. Chasing your tail

If you are engaging in an activity that isn’t taking you any closer to your goal then you are ‘chasing your tail’. A person who is chasing their tail isn’t getting very far and would be better off changing tactics.

14. Throwing your weight around

A person who is throwing their weight around is being a bully. Now, this doesn’t have to be in the physical sense, and is usually reserved for a person considered to be abusing their authority. “The CEO was really throwing his weight around in that meeting.”

15. Punching above you weight

If you take on a task that is perceived to be beyond your capability then you are ‘punching above your weight.’

16. You reap what you sow

If you plant tomato seeds then tomato plants will grow, and therefore you reap what you sow. This expression is applied to an action that has resulted in a negative consequence. If you choose to drink and drive you are sowing the seed of an accident, and should it come to fruition, you will have reaped that which you have sown.

17. Just popping out

British people use this idiom to announce their departure for a short period of time. ‘Popping’ refers to a brief trip, usually not for more than an hour.

18. A piece of cake

If something is a piece of cake it’s easy to do. It’s as simple as that.

19. To go spare

If a person is going spare they are very angry, and acting a little crazy, too. If your girlfriend catches you kissing another girl and starts throwing your stuff out the window, you might say. “Help! She is going spare.”

20. Cheap as chips

When something is notably cheap, the British will often say, “it’s cheap as chips”. This is a fairly working class idiom, and is not used in all sectors of society.

21. To give someone stick

To give a person stick is to openly criticize then in front of other. “The manager was giving him stick in front of the team today.”

22. Bob’s your uncle!

A classic British idiom, ‘Bob’s your uncle’ usually follows a set of simple instructions to indicate that a task is easy and will be successful. “So you just turn this, pull that and Bob’s your uncle!”

Whether you work in an office or at home, chances are the bulk of your work requires you to communicate with clients and stakeholders via the written word. But here’s the deal; most business-related courses don’t put enough emphasis on business writing standards, which means that even the most educated business people make common errors on a daily basis.

Solid business writing skills are of increasing importance in the digital age. Learning the core basics of effective written communication will put you in an advantageous position over your competitors, helping you communicate more effectively with your customers/clients. Better written communication translates into better relationships, which in the business world translates to increased success.

Whether you flunked English class or graduated with an English language degree, you will benefit from implementing these 10 core business English writing rules, which form the gold standard for professional business communications.

1. Leave Out the Office-Speak Jargon

Your boss might enjoy using cliché phrases like “think outside the box” and “360-degree thinking”, but don’t let this infectious office-speak find its way into your written work. Business writing should be clear and free of ambiguity; so leave the jargon for meetings and company conferences. The last thing you want is for those reading your work to feel like they are reading a script from an episode of ‘The Office’.

2. Don’t Try too Hard

It’s obvious to a reader when a writer is trying too hard, because they use $10 words where $5 words will suffice. A business document isn’t verified as such by the amount of big words you use, and attempting to fill the pages with the longest words in the Oxford English dictionary will appear as if you’re trying too hard to sound intelligent. Leave out the tongue twisting vocabulary and use short, declarative sentences.

3. Pay Attention to Names and Gender

There is nothing worse than writing Mr. to a Mrs., except perhaps spelling a person’s name incorrectly. Make sure you double-check the spelling of the recipient’s name, and ensure you have the correct gender title before you send your email or letter.

4. Make Emails Short and Concise

When writing an email, put the point across in the first paragraph. You are far more likely to get the answer you are looking for if your idea or question is put across directly without unnecessary verbiage. Save time by getting straight to the point and avoiding chitchat. People have a tendency to feel bad for not throwing in a few niceties before getting to the point. But this is the business world where time is money. There is no need to ask about the recipient’s weekend or plans for lunch. Maximise the potential of the outcome by being polite, direct and concise.

5. Curb Your Enthusiasm

You might be excited about your ideas, but don’t let your writing portray you like an excited child. Refrain from using exclamation points in important documents, no matter how energized you feel. The same should be applied to typing emails; avoid signing off with quirky endings like “See yaa!” or “Here’s to our success”! Put across a calm, positive, professional approach and you are likely to receive a similar response.

6. Use Active Verbs Over Passive Verbs

Using active verbs assists in creating more professional sentences. For example, rather than writing, “The seminar was led by Jack”, write, “Jack led the seminar”. This style of writing will bring a more energetic, assertive vibe to your prose.

7. Remember the 5 W’s: Who? What? When? Where? Why?

If you struggle with business writing then you’ll do well to write this rule on a post-it note and stick it somewhere on your desk. If you have all the W’s covered you will, at the very least, cover all the bases you need to when writing a proposal, strategy document or email. You might also do well to add a ‘how’ to the end of this list. This last piece of the equation will help you form your ‘call to action’.

8. Include a Call to Action

People receive stacks of emails and documents each week, and the higher up the ladder you go, the more written communication you receive. Much of this information is discarded and incorrectly acted upon because it lacks a call to action. Let the recipient know exactly what to do with the information you have provided. Should they reply? Should they pass the information to another person? Should they bin it? The clearer you make your call to action the more likely you are to receive the response you hoped for.

9. Avoid Decision Paralysis

Any savvy marketer will tell you that giving a consumer too much choice is a bad thing. People need to be funnelled towards a decision, because when left with multiple choices they either can’t decide or take too long to decide. Avoid decision paralysis by limiting choice in your business writing.

10. Write Twice. Check Twice

All important business documents require an editing and proofreading process. The most effective way to do this is as follows: Write your first draft without second guessing your grammar. Now go over the draft adhering to the aforementioned tips of this post. Now go back over the document again and check for grammatical errors and spelling mistakes. Take time to rework your sentences to the best of your ability. If you have a day or two before you need to submit your work, put the document aside and come back to it on a fresh head. Check it over one last time before submission.

It goes without saying that a good workman always doubles checks his work, and never was a double-checking process more necessary than when publishing written work. Every day, people all over the world miss out on golden opportunities through simple grammar errors. These errors cause unnecessary stress and get us into sticky situations because of laziness. No matter how good you think you are at writing, it’s vitally important you thoroughly check your work to ensure there are no negative knock-on effects or repercussions.

It’s not an exaggeration to say that bad grammar is potentially life ruining. It can mean the difference between success and failure in numerous situations. In this post we explore 6 ways in which bad grammar can trip you up and negatively impact your life.

1. Losing the Job Before the Interview

Sending off a CV without grammar checking your writing is tempting fate to come and smack you right between the chops. If an HR manager sees that you were sloppy enough to send in a CV/application form containing mistakes, the company isn’t likely to offer you an interview, are they? A job potentially receives 500+ applicants. To give yourself a fighting chance of landing the job make sure you triple-check your grammar before sending off your application.

2. Getting a Complaint Taken Seriously

Ever written an email or letter of complaint in the hope of generating an apology or refund? Well you’ll know then just how important it is to come across as a serious, professional individual who means business. If you write a letter littered with grammatical errors you are less likely to get the positive response you are looking for. You might say that this is discriminatory to those with poor writing skills, and you’d be right, but if you’ve ever worked in customer service you’ll know that a forceful, well-written letter urges you into promptly appeasing a customer’s demands. Be polite but firm, authoritative and direct, and don’t send that complaint before you have thoroughly grammar checked the wording.

3. Losing Respect as a Blogger

Okay, so blogs can get away with the odd mistake here and there because people can appreciate that much of the writing is done as a hobby, and therefore time is scarce amidst life’s important responsibilities. However, blogging is becoming ever more competitive, and as such the need to shine above your competitors to secure a bigger readership is greater. This means writing eloquent, error-free copy that resonates with your readership. You might get away with the odd mistake, but keep making silly grammar errors and you’ll soon see your visitor numbers fall through the floor. Don’t hit ‘publish’ before you’ve used a grammar checker.

4. Being Taken Out of Context

There are few things worse than being misunderstood by someone you really want to make understand your position. But in today’s digital world this happens regularly because of the amount of communication conducted via the written word. Debates regularly unfold on blogs, Facebook and Twitter, and if you aren’t careful with your grammar you can easily be misunderstood. This could potentially damage your reputation and discredit your argument.

Once you’ve made a point it is difficult to back track and explain yourself; people just aren’t willing to give you that opportunity, especially once they’ve secured the upper hand. This isn’t just about making the odd grammatical mistake, either. This is about being taken out of context. By using the wrong order of words, or the wrong choice of words, your entire intended meaning can be misconstrued and used against you. Don’t give others the opportunity to punish you for your mistakes. Make sure you double-check every comment before pushing that ‘post’ button.

5. No Second Chance

Even though the majority of writing is done on computers, there are still many circumstances where your final word is final and you won’t get an opportunity to go back and edit mistakes. A primary example is print published works in books and magazines. Even in the digital world you may struggle to find a Webmaster kind enough to correct a silly grammar error in a guest post you submitted a few months back. But there are other life events where your written word is final, too, such as an entry in a school yearbook or letter to a loved one. The point is you can’t always turn back the grammatical clock, and you don’t want to be remembered as the guy/girl who couldn’t write properly, do you? Check, check, check and check again!

6. Negatively Implicating Yourself in a Legally Binding Statement

No one likes to dwell on the possibility of bad things happening. However, the reality is that every person, at least once in their lifetime, becomes caught up in a potentially career or life ruining situation. For example, you might clash with a fellow employee, commit a crime (intentionally or unintentionally), become the victim of mistaken identity or stand wrongly accused of a crime. In such situations you will be required to write a statement that gives you the opportunity to put your version of events across on paper. This statement will help you tell your side of the story. However, a few poorly worded sentences and it could land you in hot water. Therefore it’s imperative that you take your time when writing important, factual statements. Grammar check the document thoroughly to ensure it reflects exactly what happened. The last thing you want is to negatively implicate yourself through the use of poor wording. Leave nothing to misinterpretation, and be careful of sentences that have the potential to be twisted under interrogation.

Writing is a powerful tool that can work for and against you, depending on your level of ability. That said; no matter how adept you become at using the written word, never become complacent. Grammar check every piece of work for maximum peace of mind.

English is difficult, there’s no doubt about it. Yet just as you think you’ve mastered the difficult concepts of English grammar and punctuation, nasty little errors trip you up and make you look weak on paper. These errors become blindly obvious when pointed out by a smug friend or tutor – leaving you to walk away with your tail between your legs, thinking, how the hell did I miss that!

So, here’s a reminder of 12 nasty little punctuation and grammar errors that are always hiding around the next corner, waiting to spoil your hard work and make your writing look limp and feeble.

1. Its and It’s

This is perhaps the most common apostrophe mistake in the world, particularly for those new to writing English.

Itsis the possessive form:

The dog had lost its collar in the park.

It’sis a short form of it is or has:

It’s a long way to San Diego.

Remember that without the apostrophe its implies that something belongs to someone/thing. It’s is simply a contraction (shortened version) for it is.

2. Who’s and Whose

Another classic schoolboy error is the confusion of these two similar sounding words.

Who’s is a contraction of who is or who has:

I have no idea who’s going to clean up all this mess.

Whose is the possessive form of who, as in ‘belonging to whom’:

Whose cat is this, anyway?

3. Who and Whom

This leads us swiftly on to two more confusing words in the same category. Who and whom are often used interchangeably, purely on the basis that writers don’t know which one to use and end up taking a shot in the dark.

Who should be used as the subject of the verb:

Any participants who find themselves feeling feint should report to the medical room immediately.

Whom should be used as the object of the verb:

Anthony had, once, been a close friend whom I trusted with all my heart.

4. Fewer/Less

This is an easy mistake to make, and one that often goes by unnoticed. Nevertheless, those with a solid command of the English written word will quickly spot this error in your work.

Use fewer with a plural or higher number than one (countable nouns):

There were fewer shades of pink.

Use less when referring to the singular (uncountable nouns):

If the bill is passed the parliament will have less power.

5. Both

This is an easy one to remember, but writers still make this mistake all the time.

Remember that both can only be used with two items.

He is both sincere and loving.

But you wouldn’t write,

He is both sincere, loving and happy.

Easy!

6. Your and You’re

A punctuation and grammar error rolled into one, this is one that gives grammar teachers sleepless nights, and makes article readers spit their coffee across the room.

Your is to indicate possession:

Is this yourpencil?

You’re is a contraction for you are:

You’re going to the ballet tonight, aren’t you?

7. May and Might

Far too many writers use these two darlings interchangeably, when in fact there is a distinct difference that drastically alters the context of a sentence.

May implies a possibility whereas might implies more certainty.

You may score three goals on Saturday

You might get a parking fine if you park in the wrong space.

Can you see the difference? I am far more likely to get a fine parking by parking in an illegal space than I am to score three goals on Saturday for my team.

8. Since and Because

Since is not the same as because, and the two cannot be used interchangeably. Since refers to time, and because refers to causation.

Since getting this job I’ve been working long hours because of a heavy workload.

Can you see the difference? Since refers to when I started the job (time), and because sets up the cause of the long works hours, which in this case is a heavy workload.

9. Anxious and Excited

Over the years the word anxious seems to have morphed into a substitute for being excited, but using it in this way will make your writing look rather confused.

Anxious is to be somewhat frightened and fearful. Ask any person who suffers from anxiety and they’ll tell you they certainly don’t feel excited when they are having an anxiety attack.

I am anxious to see my dog on the weekend. (Wrong)

I am excited to see my dog on the weekend. (Correct)

Unless, of course, you have a vicious dog that frightens you.

I am anxious about going into the haunted house next door. (Correct)

10. Affect and Effect

This post wouldn’t be complete without this classic. Not a minute goes past without someone somewhere making this mistake.

Remember this: Affect is nearly always a verb, and effect is nearly always the noun.

The true effects of LSD on the brain are unknown.

The affect on my health after taking LSD has been rather negative.

11. Farther and Further

This is another one of those tricky ones that writers tend to avoid because they simply don’t know which is suitable. Most end up sticking with further rightacross the board rather than making an appropriate distinction between the two.

If the distance is measurable, or referred to as such, use farther:

I kicked the football twenty yards farther today than I did yesterday.

If the distance or subject matter is immeasurable then use further:

The flooding will cause further problems in the south.

12. Envious and Jealous

That’s right. Contrary to popular belief these two words aren’t one of the same, and no, you can’t substitute one for the other. To be envious (envy) is to long to have what someone else has; their riches or luck. To be jealous (jealousy) is fear of rivalry.

I envy his good fortune.

It makes me so jealous when my wife smiles at the milkman.

Can you see the difference? A good way to remember the difference is to think of jealousy in terms of sexual circumstances; one man lusting after another man’s wife, or a woman jealous of her ex-boyfriend’s new girlfriend.

So there you have it. Twelve essential punctuation and grammar tips to hardwire in your memory bank and avoid looking weak on paper.

Many, many years ago, when computers were still the size of wardrobes and the world wide web was a really scary spider’s lair in a science fiction writer’s imagination, my Dad gave me a pair of huge dictionaries that he had picked up from a second hand bookshop. He was always keen on me bettering my vocabulary, because as you know, teenagers only communicate by grunting. I used to sit for hours browsing through these great dusty tomes looking for the most obscure English words I could find and then I would try to pepper my conversation with them.

These days, hardback dictionaries are long gone and replaced by all manner of resources readily available through your keyboard. The Internet is a great source to find out about English words, but if we’re honest, most of the words you read on a daily basis will be in readily accessible and understood language. You won’t necessarily have access to any olde-world English words, so here are a few rather ridiculous ones for you to try out on your nearest and dearest.

1. Archimage (first recorded use 1553): This is actually a really cool word when you break it down and think about it, isn’t it? Whenever you see archi, it relates to chief, head or master, while mage of course comes from magus and has the same route as magic. So archimage is a chief magician or a great wizard. Dumbledore in Harry Potter, perhaps?

2. Benempt (1580): How fabulous! Benempt is the past tense of ‘bename’, which means exactly what it suggests it does and bequeaths somebody a name. You can just imagine someone’s Mum saying, “No, you can’t call yourself Jazzy Jizzfiddle, I benempt you David Carter.”

3. Cankerfret (1618): Is a rather difficult way to say that something is corroding thanks to a healthy dose of rust. But it can also, rather charmingly, describe a blister in the mouth or something that is being eaten away by gangrene. Mmm, nice!

4. Coggly (1695): A coggle is a small rounded stone that has been worn smooth by the water. Therefore, coggly naturally means something that is shaken and unsteady when stepped on. A splendid pair of ridiculous English words, don’t you think?

5. Fanfaronade (1652): Fanfaronade describes boisterous or arrogant language. So someone who brags or is ostentatious in their use of English words, or any other words, could be described as loud, brash and prone to fanfaronading. Fanfare is extrapolated from this and was first used about a century later.

6. Fribble (1627): Fribble is another word that we really ought to rescue from obscurity. It means to falter or stammer, but more pertinently than either of these, from 1709 it came to mean tottering when walking. Therefore, when reviewing Lady Gaga’s latest wardrobe ensemble we can suggest that she fribbled down the street away from the paparazzi in her impossibly high shoes. A fribbler can be described as someone who acts aimlessly or feebly.

7. Ginglyform: This is an pretty ridiculous sounding word which means hinge shaped. Ginglymoidal, which is arguably even more ridiculous, means to resemble a hinge.

8. High-low (1801) High-lows is nineteenth century fashion terminology for footwear that neither reached high up the leg, nor sat below the ankle. The high-low was a laced boot that reached above the ankle but didn’t rise as a high as a boot.

9. Lickerous (1603): This is my favourite word on the list. It means something that is pleasing to the palate, something sweet, pleasant and delicious. It also came to describe the eagerly, desirous longing, greedy desire within us all. From 1653 it described someone who was lecherous, lustful and wanton.

10. Mammothrept (1599): In the sixteenth century a mammothrept was a spoilt child. This has to be one of the best – albeit ridiculous sounding – English words ever. Surely this is due for resurrection, because as we well know, the twenty-first century has more than its fair share of mammothrepts!

11. Noodle: Of course you’ve heard of noodle, and you’ve probably eaten them too. Noodles as we know them are made from wheat, flour and eggs and are served in soup or in Chinese and Asian food. However, much more interesting is the old 1753 use of the term, now largely obscure, to describe a simpleton. Try this, “My mammothrept, who I benempt David Carter, is both a noodle and a fribbler.” What a beautifully ridiculous sentence!

12. Profluvium (1603): Profluvium is not the most charming word to use in conversation. It means a flowing forth; a copious flow or discharge. As in, “I had a bad cold. There was quite a profluvium from my nasal passages.” Yuck!

13. Quivive (1726): Quivive is a sentinel’s challenge, intended to discover to which side the party challenged belongs. For example, “Halt who goes there,” is a quivive, for example. If you are ‘on the quivive’, you are on the lookout.

14. Ramiferous (1819: This rare, ridiculous sounding word means ‘to bear branches’. That will be a tree then, I guess?

15. Replevin (1461): Drawn from the law, replevin means: the restoration to, or recovery by, a person of goods or chattels taken from him, as long as he agrees to have the matter tried in a court of justice and to return the goods if the case is decided against him. From the year 1465, a person could recover their goods by a writ of replevin.

16. Sesquiplicate (1714): Sesquiplicate means to bear or involve the ratio of square roots of the cubes of the terms of a certain ratio. I’m sorry; you’ve completely lost me there but it just sounds great tripping off the tongue. Sesquiplicate is such an eighteenth century word, isn’t it? You can imagine a group of men, marked with small pox, wearing their powdered white wigs and rouged cheeks, a long time away from their last bath, sitting around in a fancy parlour drinking tea in pretty cups and arguing about the sesquiplicate. Thank heavens then for that other eighteenth century leisure pursuit, one of those English words that will never go out of fashion; gin. Now where’s the tonic?

17. Superchery (1598): Superchery is an attack made on one at a disadvantage. It’s a piece of foul play or trickery. “He didn’t win fairly, that was mere superchery I tell thee!”

18. Withershins (1513): Withershins describes movement in a direction opposite to the usual; the wrong way, or in a direction contrary to the course of the sun. Unfortunately, it is regarded as unlucky, and even as a portent of disaster, hence “My lickerous partner was sick with a profluvium and so I thought would go home, but he went withershins and while fribbling was knocked over by an elephant carrying a large number of mammothrepts from the local circus. What a noodle!” I challenge you to try that sentence out on someone today.

19. Wi-wi (1845): Wi-wi used to be Australian slang for a Frenchman. I guess they were referring to ‘oui, oui’ (yes, yes), but came off sounding more like a call for the toilet. Silly.

20. Yex (1629): Meaning to sob, to hiccup, to belch forth, yex is a fabulous word to describe those great uncontrollable sobs kids have when they are really upset, isn’t it? “Where’s Johnny”? “Oh, he’s having a yex, he’ll be fine in a few minutes.”

So there you have it, twenty English words; most of which should be left to die a graceful death in charity shops up and down the country, and others that surely deserve a revival – if for no other reason than they sound ridiculously cool. Try a few out today!

The hyphen is certainly a contender for “least used punctuation mark”, and it hasn’t exactly attracted many fans over the years, either. Winston Churchill once said hyphens were “a blemish to be avoided wherever possible”, and Woodrow Wilson remarked that the hyphen was “the most un-American thing in the world”. Yes, there was indeed a hyphen in his sentence.

But, as much as people hate on the hyphen – largely because of sentence additions such as this – you can’t get rid of the old boy. Why? Because there are some phrases that cannot exist without the hyphen. Take the following for example:

- The slow moving people trundled down the street.

At first glance you might think this sentence looks fine and dandy. But look again. Do I mean people moving slowly, or am I referring to people moving things; perhaps from my house to another?

The hyphen, dear reader, stops this trifling confusion dead in its tracks.

- The slow-moving people trundled down the street.

The hyphen is a useful tool for joining words together to aid understanding. The hyphen keeps words neatly apart where necessary. It is also devilishly useful for making sure words like coat-tail don’t become unpronounceable single words, even though MS Word thinks it shouldn’t be hyphenated.

So just how many more missing hyphens could end up making you look like a silly sausage? The answer, quite frankly, is a lot. And so, in this post, we explore ten of the silliest hyphen errors we’ve come across to date.

1. Odd People

Two hundred odd members of the university marched in protest.

Really? What! All of them were odd? Were they wearing silly outfits?

Huh?

Oh, you mean there were approximately two hundred of them.

Two hundred-odd members of the university marched in protest.

2. The Hair Remover Serial Killer

The case of the dangerous hair remover was really quite disturbing.

Yes. Was it a male or female hairdresser the police caught in the end?

What an earth are you on about?

Oh, sorry, you meant…

The case of the dangerous hair-remover was really quite disturbing.

For a moment there I thought you were referring to that serial killer who worked in a salon as a hair remover.

3. Lucky Man or Unlucky Lady?

Did you hear that Lawrence is having extra marital sex?

I didn’t. That’s fantastic. I wish my Rita would allow for such a treat.

No. I meant that Lawrence is having sex outside of his marriage.

Well why didn’t you make that clear you silly sausage!

Did you hear that Lawrence is having extra-marital sex?

4. Poor Little Used Car

I saw Bob the other day driving his little used car.

I know. He really should have bought a new one. He’s such a miser sometimes.

Huh?

Oh. You meant he gets little use out of his car. Sorry, my bad.

I saw Bob the other day driving his little-used car.

5. The Reformed Band

The gig was amazing last night. It’s such great news that the band reformed.

Why, were they all on drugs?

What? They recently got back together after ten years apart.

Well then. You should have written:

The gig was amazing last night. It’s such great news that the band re-formed.

6. Recover the Old Book

This book is so old it needs recovering.

Is it sick? Will the book make it through the night?

What are you on about?

Oh, you mean you would like to put a new cover on the book.

This book is so old it needs re-covering.

7. The Well Behaved Dog

I have a well behaved dog.

Well, I’m glad he is in good health and still minding his manners.

Eh?

Oh, silly me! You meant your dog is well-behaved.

I have a well-behaved dog.

8. Resigning The Petition

Man, that office is so inefficient. They lost the petition and made everyone resign.

That’s terrible. I can’t believe people were forced to quit over their error.

Huh?

Oh you mean re-sign the petition, right?

Man, that office is so inefficient. They lost the petition and everyone had to re-sign.

9. The Black Cab Driver

The black cab driver that picked me up from the airport was such a friendly guy.

Really, where was originally from, and what color car was he driving?

What?

Oh…He was a black-cab driver. Not a black cab driver. Sorry, you’re confusing me.

The black-cab driver that picked me up from the airport was such a great guy.

10. The Light Hairy Man

My granddad was a light haired man.

Really. It’s unusual to keep so much hair into ones old age. Good that he kept his weight down, too.

What are you talking about? He was bald and fat!

Oh! You meant he had light hair. Sorry. Next time use a hyphen!

My granddad was a light-haired man.

An old Oxford University Press style guide once stated, “If you take hyphens seriously you will surely go mad”. And after reading this post you probably will. No longer will you be able to read an article or book without scanning for missing and misplaced hyphens. But what would you rather; be a little insane, or end up looking like a silly sausage to those reading your writing.

Don’t hate on the hyphen like Churchill and Woodrow. Embrace it – because as you have seen from the ten examples above, without it, confusion wreaks havoc amidst the written word.

By the way, for the record, silly sausage is an old English saying. It’s in the same vein as “silly sod” or “silly Billy”, except I used “sausage” so as not to offend anyone called Billy who might be reading.

Toodle pip! (Goodbye).

Do you remember how hard your English teacher had to work in order to brush up your English skills? How you had to slave over sentence structure, objects and subjects and the correct use of grammar? However, then you left school and all of a sudden the rules were out of the window and text language was a lazy substitute for formal written communication. Without a doubt, at some stage in your adult life you are going to need to be able to write an application for a job, a mortgage or a loan and you may find constant punctuation errors let you down. This article aims to address some of the most common punctuation errors and keep your English teacher happy.

1. Apostrophes in contractions

This is basic kindergarten stuff. Any time you want to shorten a word you use an apostrophe. For example:

Do not = don’t
Is not = isn’t
Shall not = shan’t

The apostrophe must be placed where the letters have been removed.

2. Plurals vs. possession

Here’s one that would make your English teacher tear her hair out. You don’t make a noun plural by adding an apostrophe.

Buy my lovely fresh apple’s. Wong, wrong, wrong!
Look at my lovely dog’s. No!

Putting an apostrophe after a noun indicates possession; that something belongs to something else. For example:

Look at my lovely dog’s bowl. (One dog and one bowl to look at. The bowl belongs to the dog.)
The cat’s whiskers. (One cat with whiskers that belong to the same cat).

The apostrophe is placed after a plural where you need to show possession belonging to a group of somethings. For example:

The dogs’ bowls. (Many bowls belonging to many dogs).
The footballers’ boots. (Many boots belonging to many footballers).

3. It’s/its

It’s = it is. It is lovely. It’s lovely. This is a contraction. See (1) above.
Its = possession. Its eyes were green. Indicates possession.
Its’ = does not exist. Ever.

4. Your/ You’re/ You are

You are can be contracted to you’re. You’re the best.
Your demonstrates possession. Give me your car keys.

5. There/ their/ they’re

They are can be contracted to they’re. They’re such friendly people.
Their demonstrates possession. Give them back their passports.
There indicates place. I left my phone over there.

6. Arbitrary commas

Ah the humble comma; a source of many punctuation errors. There are countless ways to use (and abuse) commas, but the one that is mixed up the most is that which is used to separate two complete thoughts that are linked with a conjunction. A conjunction, by the way, is the glue that joins two or more phrases, clauses or words together.

You use a conjunction to stick two complete sentences together. So:

I opened the door. I went into the kitchen.

Becomes

I opened the door, and I went into the kitchen.

But the comma is arbitrary and does not need to be there, so the correct sentence should be

I opened the door and I went into the kitchen.

7. Using a comma in an introductory statement

The introduction to a sentence usually has a comma. Here are two correct examples:

Sarah, how are you doing?
Hi, it’s great to see you.
Before going to the shop, John had to visit the cashpoint.

8. Appositives

Do you remember your English teacher telling you that an appositive is a noun, or a noun substitute, that is offering clarification or repeating the meaning of the noun preceding it, and it is set between commas to highlight this? If you’re anything like me, the answer is “probably not”.

Metallica, the heavy metal group, are touring in Australia this summer.

The information between the commas is relevant but not necessary for the sentence to make sense. However, the information is needed as clarification for those who haven’t heard of Metallica.

9. Commas and numbers

Separate numbers that run into each other require commas. This is especially important with dates in numerical form.

On January 16, 2014, I will be 21 years old.

However it is not needed if there is only one date.

In January 2014 I will be 21 years old.

10. Colon

The colon should be used to introduce a list or a series, but only if it is used after an independent clause, meaning that the first part of the sentence before the colon is correct and complete and makes sense by itself.

The postman brought me: letters, a parcel and some brochures. Incorrect.

The postman came to the door with a number of items: letters, a parcel and some brochures. Correct.

11. Semi colon

The semi colon is single-handedly responsible for a large number of punctuation errors. The semi colon separates two independent clauses without using a conjunction.

She sold her car; the payments had gone up again.

The semi colon can also be used to separate items in a sentence that already use a number of commas.

Having visited the post office I was able to send letters out to a number of cities; Delhi, India; Kathmandu, Nepal; Venice, Italy; and London, England.

12. The use of quotation marks for emphasis

Quotation marks are designed to be used to indicate speech. They are also fine to wrap around the title of a book or film or piece of music. You can also use speech marks where you use an unusual word, but only do that the first time you use it. So for example, if I suggest that the house sale was “gazumped”, I would place that word in speech marks and then I would need to explain what gazumped meant.

You do not use speech marks simply to place emphasis. The following examples of speech mark use are incorrect.

Salient Cleaners – “Bringing sparkle home”
The supermarket was offering “Buy one, get one half price”
I asked him to “please” get on with it.

13. Multiple punctuation marks

If you have a tendency to use multiple exclamation or question marks in your writing, you really need to stop it now!!! Do you understand??? What would your English teacher say??!!

You should also make a habit of not over using these punctuation marks in academic, formal or business writing.

14. Proper nouns and official titles need a capital letter

If it’s a name it needs a capital letter.

Statue of Liberty
London Bridge
Sidney Opera House
The Eiffel Tower
Ford Capri
The Pope
The President of the Bank of England

15. Incomplete sentences

Last but not least, one of the most annoying punctuation errors you can make that would have your English teacher squealing is not to finish your sentences. Microsoft Word hates an incomplete sentence too, so it must be haunting the ghost of your English teacher. Don’t write in fragments. Ever.

I could beat you all. In this test. If I wanted to.

The above should be correctly written as:

I could beat you all in this test if I wanted to.